which has continued all the way through into modern times 中 which 引导定语从句，修饰 ancient civilisation。

从句使用现在完成时 has continued，表示文明"一直延续到现在"。

despite the many ups and downs 中 despite 是介词，后接名词短语，表示"尽管"。

despite = in spite of，后接名词/动名词，不能接从句：

Despite the rain, we went out. 尽管下雨，我们还是出去了。

如果要接从句，需用 although / even though：

Although it rained, we went out.

on which symbols were carved 使用"介词 + which"引导定语从句，修饰 bones and shells。

介词的选择取决于从句中的搭配：carve symbols on bones，所以用 on which。

This is the house in which I was born. 这就是我出生的那所房子。

The reason for which he left is unknown. 他离开的原因不明。

had become a well-developed writing system 使用过去完成时，表示在商代这一过去时间点之前，符号体系已经"变得成熟"。

by + 过去时间 → 过去完成时：By last Friday, she had finished all the work. 到上周五她已经完成了所有工作。

a time when people were divided 中 when 引导定语从句修饰 time；a country where the Chinese writing system began 中 where 引导定语从句修饰 country。

先行词为时间名词时用 when，为地点名词时用 where：

I remember the day when we first met. 我记得我们第一次见面的那天。

This is the place where I grew up. 这就是我长大的地方。

leading to many varieties of dialects and characters 是现在分词短语作结果状语，表示地理分隔"导致"了方言和文字的多样化。

现在分词作结果状语表示自然的、必然的结果；不定式作结果状语常表示意外的结果。

He worked hard, earning a lot of money. 他努力工作，赚了很多钱。（自然结果）

He rushed to the station, only to find the train had left. 他冲到车站，却发现火车已经走了。（意外结果）

was of great importance 使用"be of + 名词"结构，等同于形容词：be of importance = be important。

类似用法：be of value = be valuable; be of use = be useful; be of help = be helpful。

This book is of great value to students. 这本书对学生非常有价值。

no matter where Chinese people live or what dialect they speak 使用 no matter + 疑问词引导让步状语从句，意为"无论…"。

no matter where = wherever; no matter what = whatever; no matter how = however：

No matter how hard it is, I'll try. 无论多难，我都要尝试。

注意：no matter 结构只能引导状语从句，不能引导名词性从句（此时用 whatever/whoever 等）。

means by which China's present is connected with its past 中 by which 引导定语从句修饰 means。

搭配：connect with by means → by which。

This is the method by which we solve the problem. 这就是我们解决问题的方法。

known as Chinese calligraphy 是过去分词短语作后置定语，修饰 an art form，相当于非限制性定语从句 which is known as Chinese calligraphy 的缩写。

过去分词作定语表示被动或已完成的状态：

The book written by him is popular. 他写的书很受欢迎。

, which has become an important part of Chinese culture 是非限制性定语从句，对 calligraphy 作补充说明。

非限制性定语从句与主句之间有逗号隔开，不能省略（省略后信息不完整）：

Beijing, which is the capital of China, has a long history. 北京，中国的首都，历史悠久。

As China plays a greater role in global affairs 中 As 既可理解为时间状语（"随着"），也可理解为原因状语（"因为"）。

As = 随着：As time goes by, things change. 随着时间的推移，事情会发生变化。

As = 因为：As you were late, we started without you. 因为你迟到了，我们没等你就开始了。

an increasing number of international students 使用"an increasing number of + 复数名词"结构，谓语用复数。

对比：a number of（许多）+ 复数名词 → 复数谓语；the number of（…的数量）+ 复数名词 → 单数谓语。

A number of students are present. 许多学生在场。

The number of students is 50. 学生人数是50。