Reading and Thinking
A SHORT HISTORY OF WESTERN PAINTING
西方绘画艺术简史
What is Western art? It is hard to give a precise definition. As there have been so many different styles of Western art, it is impossible to describe them all in a short text. Perhaps the best way to understand Western art is to look at the development of Western painting over the centuries.
什么是西方艺术？很难给出一个精确的定义。由于西方的艺术风格多种多样，在短短的一篇课文里不可能进行全面的描述。也许了解西方艺术的最好方法就是看看几个世纪以来西方绘画的发展。
precise
As引导原因状语从句
As 在此处引导原因状语从句，意为「由于；因为」，语气较弱，通常表示显而易见的原因。与 because 的区别：because 语气最强，回答 why 的提问；as 语气较弱，常位于句首。
During the Middle Ages, the purpose of Western art was to teach people about Christianity. Thus, artists were not interested in painting realistic scenes. Their works were often primitive and two-dimensional, and the main characters were often made much larger than everyone else to show their importance. This began to change in the 13th century with Giotto di Bondone (1267-1337). While his paintings still had religious themes, they showed real people in a real environment. In particular, his paintings are set apart from other paintings by their realistic human faces and deep emotional impact.
在中世纪，西方艺术的目的是向人们传授基督教。因此，艺术家对写实场景不感兴趣。他们的作品通常较为粗糙且二维化，主体人物通常比其他人物大得多，以显示他们的重要性。这种情况在13世纪时因乔托·迪·邦多纳（1267-1337）而开始改变。尽管他的画仍然是宗教主题，但它们展示的是真实环境中的真实人物。尤其是他的画作，因其逼真的人物面貌和深刻的情感冲击而从其他画作中脱颖而出。
primitivein particularinfluentialset apart from
While引导让步状语从句
While 在此处引导让步状语从句，意为「尽管；虽然」，相当于 although/though。注意：while 作让步时，从句通常位于主句之前。while 还可引导时间状语从句（当……时候）和对比状语从句（然而）。
New ideas and values gradually replaced old ones from the Middle Ages. As a result, painters concentrated less on religious themes. They began to adopt a more humanistic attitude to life. An important breakthrough during this period was the use of perspective by Masaccio (1401-1428). Influential painters such as Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Michelangelo (1475-1564), and Raphael (1483-1520) built upon Giotto and Masaccio's innovations to produce some of the greatest art that Europe had ever seen.
新的思想和价值观逐渐取代了中世纪的思想和价值观。因此，画家较少关注宗教主题。他们开始持一种更人性化的生活态度。这一时期的一个重要突破是马萨乔（1401-1428）对透视法的运用。一些颇具影响力的画家，例如莱昂纳多·达·芬奇（1452-1519）、米开朗琪罗（1475-1564）和拉斐尔（1483-1520），在乔托和马萨乔的创新基础上继续发展，创造出欧洲前所未有的一些最伟大的艺术作品。
breakthroughhumanistic
that引导定语从句（最高级修饰）
当先行词被最高级修饰时，定语从句的关系代词只能用 that，不能用 which。如：the greatest art that Europe had ever seen（欧洲前所未见的最伟大的艺术作品）。
Another innovation was the use of oil paints. With their deep colours and realism, some of the best oil paintings look like photographs. While painters as early as Da Vinci had used oil, this technique reached its height with Rembrandt (1606-1669), who gained a reputation as a master of shadow and light.
另一个创新是油画颜料的使用。由于其深沉的色彩和现实主义风格，一些油画佳品看上去就像是照片。尽管早在达芬奇时代一些画家就使用油彩绘画，但伦勃朗使得这种技艺达到了顶峰，他拥有「光影大师」的雅称。
reputation
who引导非限制性定语从句
who gained a reputation as a master of shadow and light 是非限制性定语从句，对先行词 Rembrandt 进行补充说明。非限制性定语从句与主句之间用逗号隔开，不能省略，否则句意不完整。
In subject matter, the emphasis increasingly shifted from religious themes to people and the world around us. Kings, nobles, and people of high rank wanted to purchase accurate pictures of themselves and the people they loved. Others wanted paintings showing important historical events or stories from mythology. Finally, most clients wanted paintings that were beautiful and interesting to look at.
在题材上，画作重点逐渐从宗教主题转移到人和我们周围的世界。国王、贵族和上流社会人士都想购买自己和所爱之人的精准画像。其他人则想要展示重要历史事件或神话故事的画作。最后，大多数客户都想要看起来美丽有趣的画作。
noblerankpurchasemythology
The development of Western art slowed until the invention of photography in the mid-19th century. After that, paintings were no longer needed to preserve what people and the world looked like. Hence, painters had to find a new way of looking at their art. From this, Impressionism emerged in France. The name of this new movement came from the painting by Claude Monet (1840-1926) called Impression, Sunrise. In this work, Monet's aim was to convey the light and movement in the scene—the subjective impression the scene gave him—but not a detailed record of the scene itself.
直到19世纪中叶摄影术发明之前，西方艺术的发展缓慢。在那之后，不再需要绘画来保存人和世界的面貌了。因此，画家们不得不寻找一种新的方式来看待他们的艺术。由此，印象派在法国应运而生。这个新运动的名字来源于克劳德·莫奈（1840-1926）的一幅名为《印象·日出》的画作。在这幅作品中，莫奈想传达场景中的光线和运动——场景给他的主观印象——而不是场景本身的详细记录。
no longer
what引导宾语从句
what people and the world looked like 是 what 引导的宾语从句，作 preserve 的宾语。what 在从句中作主语补足语（looked like 的表语），意为「……的样子」。
While many Impressionists painted scenes of nature or daily life, others, such as Renoir (1841-1919), focused on people. Unlike the cold, black-and-white photographs of that time period, Renoir's paintings are full of light, shadow, colour, and life. He sought to show not just the outer image of his subjects, but their inner warmth and humanity as well.
虽然许多印象派画家描绘了自然或日常生活场景，但其他画家，如雷诺阿（1841-1919年）则以人物为关注对象。雷诺阿的画作与那个时代冷淡的黑白照片不同，充满了光、影、色彩和生命。他不仅试图展示他笔下人物的外在形象，而且还展示他们内心的温暖和人性。
humanitynot just...but...as well
After Impressionism, subsequent artists began to ask, "What do we do next?" Painters such as Picasso (1881-1973) tried to analyse the shapes which existed in the natural world but in a new way, with Cubism. Others gave their paintings a realistic but dream-like quality. Still others turned to abstract art. What they attempted to do was no longer show reality, but instead to ask the question, "What is art?"
在印象派之后，后来的艺术家开始问「下一步我们该做什么？」。像毕加索（1881-1973）这样的画家试图用一种新的方法，用立体主义来分析自然界中存在的各种形状。其他人则赋予他们的画一种写实但又像梦一般的品质特征。还有一些人转向抽象艺术。他们试图做的不再是展示现实，而是提出一个问题「什么是艺术？」
no longer...but instead...
What引导主语从句
What they attempted to do 是 what 引导的主语从句，what 在从句中作 do 的宾语。主语从句的谓语用单数形式：was no longer show...but instead to ask...
要点摘要
- 西方艺术难以精确定义，需从绘画发展史理解
- 中世纪艺术以宗教为主题，乔托开始引入写实风格
- 文艺复兴时期重视人性和透视法，涌现大量杰作
- 印象派因摄影术兴起而转向主观感受
- 现代艺术不断探索新的表现形式，追问艺术本质